Determination of Psychoactive Mitragynine Drug in Suspected Kratom Species Collected from Various Geographical Areas in the Philippines: A Pilot Study on Existing Local Plant-based New Psychoactive Su
محتوى المقال
الملخص
Kratom is a tropical tree indigenous to South East Asian countries and has been traditionally used by natives to increase work efficiency and treat selected illnesses. However, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) classified kratom, Mitragyna speciose, as a plant-based New Psychoactive Substance (NPS) that must be monitored worldwide, due to increasing reports of abuse. Many countries, including the Philippines, do not put restrictions on the said plant species including its major psychoactive drug, mitragynine. Under this prevailing provision, a research exploration was carried out to determine the distribution of kratom trees, locally known as “mambog”, in the Philippines and authenticate species identity of collected specimens through chemical determination of mitragynine and DNA analysis.
Various samples, specifically leaves, twigs, barks and roots, from claimed kratom species in selected regions of Luzon and the Mindanao Islands of the Philippines were sampled and preserved accordingly before subjecting them to instrumental analysis using Gas-Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) and DNA barcoding.
During the field exploration, it was well documented that claimed kratom trees are mostly present in wetland areas at low altitudes, and sometimes co-exist with local bangkal (genus Nauclea) trees. Interestingly, while locals identified some of the collected species as kratom through botanical assessment, mitragynine was not detected in some selected sampling sites. Remarkably, among tree parts collected, only leaves and twigs showed evidence of mitragynine suggesting further disparity among kratom tree parts.
الكلمات المفتاحية
Forensic Science، Plant-Based New Psychoactive Substances، Kratom، Mitragyna speciosa، Mitragynine
التنزيلات
المراجع
Low JW, Leela A, Bhore SJ. The Kratom Plant [Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.)] Paradox: Beneficial or Detrimental? Res Highl 4Bs. 2016;4Bs: 84-89.
Casey CR, Conley T, Heise A, Thomas T, Ayres PR. Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of Mitragynine
in Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) by GC-MS, LC-MS/ MS and UPLC-PDA. J Regul Sci. 2015;3(2):1-4.
Suwanlert S. A study of Kratom eaters in Thailand. Bulletin on narcotics. 1975;27(3):21-7.
Ranggasamy R, Ghafar ZA, Jean SW, Hussain NH, Japri N, Badron UH, Juan T, Wasiman MI, Ismail Z.
Herbal monograph methodology for identification of Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. leaves. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2015;4(4):256.
Grewal KS. Observations on the pharmacology of mitragynine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1932;46(3):251-71.
Jansen KL, Prast CJ. Ethnopharmacology of Kratom and the Mitragyna alkaloids. J Ethnopharmacol.
;23(1):115-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(88)90121-3
Bergen-Cico D, MacClurg K. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) use, addiction potential, and legal status. Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse. 2016;89: 903-911. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800634-4.00089-5
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), UNODC Early Warning Advisory on New Psychoactive Substances (NPS). Accessed: 31 December 2018, https://www.unodc.org/LSS/SubstanceGroup/Details/4b17fe10-91da-477c-bc3d-593136040668
Kronstrand R, Roman M, Thelander G, Eriksson A. Unintentional fatal intoxications with mitragynine and O-desmethyltramadol from the herbal blend Krypton. J Anal Toxicol. 2011;35(4):242-7.
https://doi.org/10.1093/anatox/35.4.242
Heather G, Rachel W, John D. Preliminary Analysis of FDA “Kratom-related” Deaths. Accessed: 31 December 2018,
%20Kratom-Related%20Deaths.pdf
Chittrakarn S, Penjamras P, Keawpradub N. Quantitative analysis of mitragynine, codeine, caffeine, chlorpheniramine and phenylephrine in a Kratom (Mitragynaspeciosa Korth.) cocktail using high-performance liquid chromatography. Forensic Sci Int. 2012;217(1-3):81-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.10.027
Philippines Kratom. Accessed: 31 December 2018,https://www.philippinesKratom.ph/
Alejandro GJ. The current status of the Philippine Rubiaceae. Philipp J Syst Biol. 2009 Apr 22;1(1):47-60.https://doi.org/10.3860/pjsb.v1i1.908
Jaipaew J, Padungchareon T, Sukrong S. PCR-reverse dot blot of the nucleotide signature sequences of matK for the identification of Mitragyna speciosa, a narcoticspecies. Plant Gene. 2018;14: 46-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plgene.2018.04.005
Philippine Medicinal Plants, Mambog Mitragyna speciosa (Korth) Havil Kratom. Accessed: 31 December 2018, http://www.stuartxchange.org/Mambog.html
Brown PN, Lund JA, Murch SJ. A botanical, phytochemical and ethnomedicinal review of the genus Mitragyna korth: implications for products sold as Kratom. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;202:302-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.03.020
Goh TB, Mordi MN, Khoo KH, Mansor SM. Comparison of the mitragynine content of aqueous extracts
from Mitragyna speciosa Korth leaves from two different geographical areas in Malaysia. As J Food Ag-Ind.
;6(3):142-8.
Mazerolle MJ. Peatlands and green frogs: A relationship regulated by acidity? Ecoscience. 2005;12 (1): 60-67. https://doi.org/10.2980/i1195-6860-12-1-60.1
Brown PN, Lund, JA, Murch, SJ. A botanical, phytochemical and ethnomedicinal review of the genus Mitragyna Korth: Implications for products sold as Kratom.
J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;202: 302-325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.03.020
Almeria ML, Nuñeza OM. Amphibian diversity and endemism in the swamp forests of Agusan Marsh, Agusan Del Sur, Philippines. AES Bioflux. 2013;5 (1): 30- 48.
Chittrakarn S, Sawangjaroen K, Prasettho S, Janchawee B, Keawpradub N. Inhibitory effects of Kratom leaf extract (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) on the rat gastrointestinal tract. Ethnopharmacol. 2008;116: 173-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.11.032.