Voltammetric Analysis of New Psychoactive Substances
Article content
Abstract
New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) are synthetic drugs that create similar effects as various narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. Different NPS such as mephedrone, synthacaine, synthetic cannabinoids, etc. are available today which are sold across numerous platforms like drug markets, head shops, the dark web, etc. They are emerging rapidly and becoming popular in society because of their variable nature and ease in avoiding breaking the law. Consequently, their analysis is extremely crucial in the prohibition of drug abuse and the development of laboratory methods. This review introduces a broad overview of the analysis of various new psychoactive substances by voltammetric techniques such as cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, square wave voltammetry, stripping voltammetry etc. It also focuses on various methodologies that were developed for the detection of these NPS which play a leading role in forensic investigation by providing a rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective platform of analysis. The need for the advancement of various detection methods and analysis of more drugs is additionally discussed.
Keywords
Forensic Science, New Psychoactive Substances, Voltammetric Techniques, NPS Analysis
Downloads
References
What are NPS? United Nations: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime;15 March 2021. Available form: https://www.unodc.org/LSS/Home/NPS
O'Hagan A, Smith C. A new beginning: an overview of new psychoactive substances. Forensic res criminol Int J. 2017;5(3):00159. https://doi.org/10.15406/frcij.2017.05.00159
Smith JP, Sutcliffe OB, Banks CE. An overview of recent developments in the analytical detection of new psychoactive substances (NPSs). Analyst. 2015;140(15):4932-48. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5AN00797F
Patil V, Tewari A, Rao R. New psychoactive substances: Issues and challenges. J Ment Health Human Behav. 2016 Jul 1;21(2):98. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-8990.193427
Smith JP. Forensic electrochemistry: developing electrochemical sensors for the detection of illicit compounds (Doctoral dissertation, Manchester Metropolitan University).
King LA, Kicman AT. A brief history of “New psychoactive substances.” Drug Test Anal. 2011;3(7-8):401-403. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.319
Understanding the synthetic drug market: the NPS factor. United Nations: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime;2018.Global Smart Update.
Corazza O, Valeriani G, Bersani FS, Corkery J, Martinotti G, Bersani G, Schifano F. “Spice,” “Kryptonite,” “Black Mamba”: An Overview of Brand Names and Marketing Strategies of Novel Psychoactive Substances on the Web. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2014;46(4):287-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2014.944291
Bruno R, Matthews AJ, Dunn M, Alati R, McIlwraith F, Hickey S, Burns L, Sindicich N. Emerging psychoactive substance use among regular ecstasy users in Australia. Drug Alcohol Depend.2012;1249(1-2):19-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.11.020
Corazza O, Simonato P, Corkery J, Trincas G, Schifano F. “Legal highs”: Safe and legal “heavens”? A study on the diffusion, knowledge and risk awareness of novel psychoactive drugs among students in the UK. Rivista Di Psichiatria.2014;49(2):89-94.
Scientific working group for the analysis of seized drugs (SWGDRUG) recommendations. United States: United States department of justice drug enforcement administration; 2016.
Kelly JF, Addanki K, Bagasra O. The nonspecific of Duquenois-Levine field test of marijuana. Open Forensic Sci J. 2012;5:4-8. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874402801205010004
Balbino, M. A., Eleoterio, I. C., Oliveira, M. F. de, & Mccord, B. R. (2016). Electrochemical Study of Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol by Cyclic Voltammetry Using Screen Printed Electrode , Improvements in Forensic Analysis. Sens Transducers. 207(12), 73–78.
Elgrishi N, Rountree KJ, McCarthy BD, Rountree ES, Eisenhart TT, Dempsey JL. A Practical Beginner’s Guide to Cyclic Voltammetry. J Chem Educ. 2018;95(2):197-206. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00361
Saito Y, Kikuchi T. Voltammetry Theory, Types and Applications.1st ed. New York: Nova science publishers;2014.
Thomas D. Developemnt of electrochemical and fluroscent sensors [thesis]. Kochi: Cochin University of Science and Technology. 2014.
Skoog DA, West DM, Holder FJ, Crouch SR. Fundamental of Analytical Chemistry. 9th ed. Belmont:Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning; 2014.
Gambhir G, Gautam A. Significance of Instrumental Methods in Forensic Science. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development; Instrumental methods and analysis.
Kounaves SP. Voltammetric Technoques. In: Settle FA, editor. Handbook of Instrumental Techniques for Analytical Chemistry. New Jersey: A Simon and Schuster Company;1997.711-728.
Nandibewoor JI. Simultaneous electrochemical determination of 4-aminophenozane and caffeine at electrochemically pretreated graphite pencil electrode. Anal methods. 2014;6(14):5147-5154. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ay00467a
Sri Vidya D, Chandra Sekhar G, Rao PV, Aruna K. Differential pulse voltammetrric determination of cinitrapride using carbon paste elctrode. Int J Eng Sci Technol.2017;6(8):220-224.
Katarzyna ML, Staskowska E. Sensitive and rapid voltammetric determination of phenothiazine and azaphenothiazine derivatives in pharmaceuticals usinf boron-doped diamond electrode. Anal Sci.2015;31:961-969. https://doi.org/10.2116/analsci.31.961
Khan JI, Kennedy TJ, Christian DR. Basic Principles of Forensic Chemistry. New York: Humana Press;2012. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-437-7
Karila L, Megarbane B, Cottencin O, Lejoyeux M. Synthetic cathinones: a new public health problem. Curr Neuropharmacol.2015;13(1):12-20. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X13666141210224137
Watterson LR, Olive MF. Synthetic cathinones and their rewarding and reinforcing effects in rodents. Advances in Neuroscience. 2014;2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/209875
Morris K. UK places generic ban on mephedrone drug family. The Lancet. 2010 Apr 17;375(9723):1333-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60559-4
Dargan PI, Sedefov R, Gallegos A, Wood DM. The pharmacology and toxicology of the synthetic cathinone mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone). Drug Test Anal. 2011;3(7-8):454-463. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.312
Smith JP, Metters JP, Irving C, Sutcliffe OB, Banks CE. Forensic electrochemistry: the electroanalytical sensing of synthetic cathinone-derivatives and their accompanying adulterants in “legal high” products. Analyst. 2013;139(2):389-400. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3AN01985C
Smith JP, Metters JP, Khreit OIG, Sutcliffe OB, Banks CE. Forensic electrochemistry applied to the sensing of new psychoactive substances: Electroanalytical sensing of synthetic cathinones and analytical validation in the quantification of seized street samples. Anal Chem. 2014;86(19):9985-9992. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac502991g
Tan F, Smith JP, Sutcliffe OB, Banks CE. Regal electrochemistry: Sensing of the synthetic cathinone class of new psychoactive substances (NPS). Anal Methods. 2015;7(16):6470-6474. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5AY01820J
The Royal Mint. One Penny Coin. United Kingdom. The Royal Mint; 15 March 2021. Available from: https://www.royalmint.com/discover/uk-coins/coin-design-and-specifications/one-penny-coin/
Elbardisy HM, Ferrari AGM, Foster CW, Sutcliffe OB, Brownson DAC, Belal TS, Talaat W, Daabees HG, Banks CE. Forensic Electrochemistry: The Electroanalytical Sensing of Mephedrone Metabolites. ACS Omega. 2019;4(1):1947-1954. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.8b02586
Maheux CR, Alarcon IQ, Copeland CR, Cameron TS, Linden A, Grossert JS. Identification of polymorphism in ethylone hydrochloride: synthesis and characterization. Drug Test Anal. 2016;8(8):847-857. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.1859
Scheel GL, de Oliveira FM, de Oliveira LLG, Medeiros RA, Nascentes CC, Tarley CRT. Feasibility study of ethylone determination in seized samples using boron-doped diamond electrode associated with solid phase extraction. Sensors and Actuators, B: Chemical. 2018;259:1113-1122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2017.12.129
Lima CD, Couto RAS, Arantes LC, Marinho PA, Pimentel DM, Quinaz MB, da Silva RAB, Richter EM, Barbosa SL, dos Santos WTP. Electrochemical detection of the synthetic cathinone 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone using carbon screen-printed electrodes: A fast, simple and sensitive screening method for forensic samples. Electrochimica Acta. 2020;354:136728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2020.136728
Anizan S, Ellefsen K, Concheiro M, Suzuki M, Rice KC, Baumann MH, Huestis MA. 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and metabolites quantification in human and rat plasma by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta. 2014;827:54-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2014.04.015
Hill SL, Thomas SH. Clinical toxicology of newer recreational drugs. Clin Toxicol. 2011;49(8):705-719. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2011.615318
Angela Me. Amphetamine-type sti mulants and new psychoactive substances. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; 2014. Global Synthetic Drugs Assessment.
Nichols DE. Psychedelics. Pharmacol Rev. 2016;68(2):264-355. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478
Lawn W, Barratt M, Williams M, Horne A, Winstock A. The NBOMe hallucinogenic drug series: Patterns of use, characteristics of users and self-reported effects in a large international sample. J psychopharmacology.2014;28(8):780-788. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881114523866
Andrade AFB, Mamo SK, Gonzalez-Rodriguez J. Rapid screening method for new psychoactive substances of forensic interest: Electrochemistry and analytical determination of phenethylamines derivatives (NBOMe) via cyclic and differential pulse voltammetry. Anal Chem.2016;89(3):1445-1452. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.6b02426
Cumba LR, Smith JP, Zuway KY, Sutcliffe OB, Do Carmo DR, Banks CE. Forensic electrochemistry: Simultaneous voltammetric detection of MDMA and its fatal counterpart “dr Death” (PMA). Anal Methods. 2016;8(1):142-152. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5AY02924D
Pentney AR. An Exploration of the History and Controversies Surrounding MDMA and MDA. J Psychoactive Drugs.2001;33(3):213-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2001.10400568
Caldicott DGE, Edwards NA, Kruys A, Kirkbride KP, Sims DN, Byard RW, Prior M, Irvine RJ. Dancing with “death”: p-methoxyamphetamine overdose and its acute management. Journal of Toxicology: Clin Toxicol.2003;41(2):143-154. https://doi.org/10.1081/CLT-120019130
Souza GA, Arantes LC, Guedes TJ, de Oliveira AC, Marinho PA, Muñoz RA, dos Santos WTP. Voltammetric signatures of 2,5-dimethoxy-N-(2-methoxybenzyl) phenethylamines on boron-doped diamond electrodes: Detection in blotting paper samples. Electrochem Commun. 2017;82:121-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2017.08.001
Souza GA, Pimentel DM, Lima AB, Guedes TJ, Arantes LC, De Oliveira AC, Sousa RMF, Muñoz RAA, dos Santos WTP. Electrochemical sensing of NBOMes and other new psychoactive substances in blotting paper by square-wave voltammetry on a boron-doped diamond electrode. Anal Method. 2018;10(20):2411-2418. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8AY00385H
Oiye ÉN, Midori Toia Katayama J, Fernanda Muzetti Ribeiro M, de Oliveira MF. Electrochemical analysis of 25H-NBOMe by Square Wave Voltammetry. Forensic Chem.2017;5:86-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forc.2017.07.001
De Andrade AFB, Gonzalez-Rodriguez J. Electroanalytical identification of 25I-NBOH and 2C-I via differential pulse voltammetry: A rapid and sensitive screening method to avoid misidentification. Analyst.2019;144(9):2965-2972. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9AN00062C
Wikström M, Holmgren P, Ahlner J. A2 (N-benzylpiperazine) a new drug of abuse in Sweden. J Anal Toxicol. 2004;28(1):67-70. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/28.1.67
Sedefov R. Report on the risk assessment of BZP in the framework of the Council decision on new psychoactive substances. Luxembourg: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction; 2009. EMCDDA risk assesment.
Waddell SA, Fernandez C, Inverarity CC, Prabhu R. Extending the capability of forensic electrochemistry to the novel psychoactive substance benzylpiperazine. Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research.2017;13:28-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbsr.2016.12.001
Rocha LR, de Cássica Mendonça J, Capelari TB, Medeiros RA, Tarley CRT. Development of a reliable and selective voltammetric method for determination of designer drug 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP) using boron-doped diamond electrode and exploiting surfactant-mediated measurements. Sensors and Actuators, B: Chemical. 2020;310:127812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2020.127812
Wong YL. Synthetic cannabinoids in herbal products. United Nations: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime;2011.
Dronova M, Smolianitski E, Lev O. Electrooxidation of New Synthetic Cannabinoids: Voltammetric Determination of Drugs in Seized Street Samples and Artificial Saliva. Anal Chem. 2016;88(8):4487-4494. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.6b00368
Vandrey R, Dunn KE, Fry JA, Girling ER. A survey study to characterize use of Spice products (synthetic cannabinoids). Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;120(1-3):238-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.07.011
Cumba LR, Kolliopoulos AV, Smith JP, Thompson PD, Evans PR, Sutcliffe OB, do Carmo DR, Banks CE. Forensic electrochemistry: Indirect electrochemical sensing of the components of the new psychoactive substance “synthacaine.” Analyst. 2015;140(16):5536-5545. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5AN00858A
Vardanyan RS, Hruby VJ. Fentanyl-related compounds and derivatives: current status and future prospects for pharmaceutical applications. Future Med Chem. 2014; 6(4): 385-412. https://doi.org/10.4155/fmc.13.215
Ott CE, Cunha-Silva H, Kuberski SL, Cox JA, Arcos-Martínez MJ, Arroyo-Mora LE. Electrochemical detection of fentanyl with screen-printed carbon electrodes using square-wave adsorptive stripping voltammetry for forensic applications. J Electroanal Chem. 2020;873:114425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2020.114425
Vyskočil V, Barek J. Mercury electrodes-possibilities and limitations in environmental electroanalysis. Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry.2009;39(3):173-188.
Article details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
You must read and accept the copyright terms and conditions(click here for copyright terms).