استغلال الأزمات: الجماعات الإرهابية، اليمين المتطرّف، والجريمة المنظمة في ظل فيروس كورونا

اتفاقية الأمم المتحدة لمكافحة الجريمة المنظمة عبر الوطنية. (2000، 15 نوفمبر). https://www.unodc.org/documents/treaties/UNTOC/Publications/TOC%20Convention/TOCebook-a.pdf.

الحيدري، إ. (2015). سوسيولوجيا العنف والإرهاب. بيروت: دار الساقي.

سعود الكبير، ع. خ. (2019، 27 أكتوبر). ماذا يعني مقتل زعيم «داعش» لخارطة التطرف؟. اندبندنت عربية. https://bit.ly/3hgRp98.

سعود الكبير، ع. خ. (2020، 12 أبريل). التعددية العالمية والتعاون الدولي في ظل «كورونا الجديد». الشرق الأوسط. https://bit.ly/2zdDMGn.

صحيفة إباء (1441هـ). هيئة تحرير الشام. الأعداد 90، 92، 93. https://ebaa.news/category/weekly-newspaper.

صحيفة النبأ (1441هـ). تنظيم داعش. الأعداد من 226 إلى 234. https://alnaba99493477.wordpress.com.

العربية (2020، 15 أبريل). برلين تعتقل 4 دواعش خططوا لمهاجمة قواعد أمريكية. https://ara.tv/vsb4t.

العربية (2017، 5 أكتوبر). الظواهري متوعدًا «النصرة»: لم أعفِ أحدًا من البيعة. http://ara.tv/pdruf.

فرات بوست. (2020، 9 أبريل). نساء مقاتلي تنظيم الدولة في مخيم الهول لن نصاب بكورونا لأنه خاص «بالكفار». https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VgXUJnE5VPk.

فروانة، م. (2020، 17 أبريل). جماعة مرتبطة بداعش تقتل 11 عسكريًّا في الفلبين، أخبار الآن. https://bit.ly/2YeIex5

كيلاني، ف. (2020، 20 مايو). أبو إبراهيم القرشي يستحضر روح أبا مصعب الزرقاوي لقيادة بقايا «تنظيم الدولة». بي بي سي عربي. https://www.bbc.com/arabic/middleeast-52741694.

وزارة الداخلية التونسية (2020، 16 أبريل). إلقاء القبض على عنصر تكفيري يحرض على نشر فيروس كورونا بين الأمنيين. https://bit.ly/2Uoqhel.

المراجع الأجنبية

Alcock, A. (2020, March 27). FBI: Terrorism Suspect Who Planned to Bomb Hospital Visited Neo-Nazi Chatrooms. KSHB Kansas City. https://www.kshb.com/news/local-news/investigations/fbi-terrorism-suspect-who-planned-to-bomb-hospital-visited-neo-nazi-chatrooms.

Ali, Z. (2020, February 18). Syria: Who’s in Control of Idlib?. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45401474.

Allen, J. et al., (2020, March 20). How the World will Look After the Coronavirus Pandemic. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/20/world-order-after-coroanvirus-pandemic/.

Amarasingam, A. & Winter, C. (2017, May 26). ISIS’s Perverse, Bloody Interpretation of Ramadan. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/05/ramadan-isis-attack-muslim/528336/.

Anti-Defamation League. (2020, May 27). Reports of Anti-Asian Assaults, Harassment and Hate Crimes Rise as Coronavirus Spreads. https://www.adl.org/blog/reports-of-anti-asian-assaults-harassment-and-hate-crimes-rise-as-coronavirus-spreads.

Argentino, M. A. (2020, April 9). QAnon Conspiracy Theories about the Coronavirus Pandemic are a Public Health Threat. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/qanon-conspiracy-theories-about-the-coronavirus-pandemic-are-a-public-health-threat-135515.

Ariza, C. (2020, April 14). COVID-19 and the Global Far Right [Tony Blair Institute for Global Change]. https://institute.global/policy/COVID-19-and-global-far-right.

Asmann, P. (2020, March 31). What does Coronavirus Mean for Criminal Governance in Latin America [InSight Crime]. https://www.insightcrime.org/news/analysis/criminal-governance-latin-america-coronavirus/.

Aziani, A., Favarin, S., & Campedelli, G. M. (2020). Security Governance: Mafia Control Over Ordinary Crimes. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 57(4), pp. 444-492.

BBC Monitoring (2019, May 22). Syria Group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham and al-Qaeda Legacy. BBC https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-48353751.

Beck, C. J. (2008). The Contribution of Social Movement Theory to Understanding Terrorism. Sociology Compass, 2(5), pp. 1565-1581.

Berger, J. M. (2018). Extremism. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Carter, E. (2018). Right-wing Extremism/Radicalism: Reconstructing the Concept. Journal of Political Ideologies, 23(2), pp. 157-182.

Cockayne, J. (2016). Hidden Power: The Strategic Logic of Organized Crime. London: Hurst.

Comerford, M. & Davey, J. (2020, April 27). Comparing Jihadist and Far-Right Extremist Narratives on COVID-19 [Global Network on Extremism and Technology]. https://gnet-research.org/2020/04/27/comparing-jihadist-and-far-right-extremist-narratives-on-COVID-19/.

Crenshaw, M. (2005, March 8-11). Political explanations. In Addressing the causes of terrorism, Report of the working group at the International Summit on Democracy, Terrorism and Security. The Club de Madrid Series on Democracy and Terrorism, 1, pp. 13–18.

Deflem, M. (ed.). (2011). Economic Crisis and Crime. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Di Dontano, V. & Lister, T. (2020, April 19). The Mafia is Poised to Exploit Coronavirus, and not Just in Italy. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/19/europe/italy-mafia-exploiting-coronavirus-crisis-aid-intl/index.html.

Douglas, K. M., Uscinski, J. E., Sutton, R. M., Cichoka, A., Nefes, T., Siang Ang, C., & Deravi, F. (2019). Understanding Conspiracy Theories. Advances in Political Psychology, 40(S1), pp. 3-35.

Ebner, J. (2017). The Rage: The Vicious Circle of Islamist and Far-Right Extremism. London & New York: I. B. Tauris.

Eligh, J. (2020, May). Crisis and Opportunity: Impacts of the Coronavirus on Illicit Drug Markets [Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime – Policy Brief]. https://globalinitiative.net/coronavirus-illicit-drug-markets/.

Feldman, S. & Stenner, K. (2008). Perceived Threat and Authoritarianism. Political Psychology Journal, 18(4), pp. 741-770.

Fisher, D., & Mercado, C. (2014). Competitive Control: How to Evaluate the Threats Posed by Ungoverned Spaces? Small Wars Journal. https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/%E2%80%9Ccompetitive-control%E2%80%9D-how-to-evaluate-the-threats-posed-by-%E2%80%9Cungoverned-spaces%E2%80%9D.

Frey, B. S. & Weck, H. (1983). A Statistical Study of the Effect of the Great Depression on Elections: The Weimar Republic, 1930-1933. Political Behavior, 5(4), pp. 403-420.

Gad, A. (2020, May 28). The Coronavirus isn’t Immune from the Far Right [Global Network on Extremism and Technology]. https://gnet-research.org/2020/05/28/the-coronavirus-isnt-immune-from-the-far-right/.

Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime (2020, March). Crime and Contagion: The Impact of a Pandemic on Organized Crime. https://globalinitiative.net/crime-contagion-impact-covid-crime/.

Hassan, H. (2020, May 12), ISIS in Iraq and Syria: Rightsizing the Current ‘Comeback’ [Center for Global Policy (CGP)]. https://cgpolicy.org/articles/isis-in-iraq-and-syria-rightsizing-the-current-comeback/.

Hincks, J. (2020, April 29). With the World Busy Fighting COVID-19, Could ISIS Mount a Resurgence?. Time. https://time.com/5828630/isis-coronavirus/.

Hoffman, B. (2017). Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.

Ingram, H., Whiteside, C. & Winter, C. (2020), The ISIS Reader: Milestone Texts of the Islamic State Movement, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Institute for Strategic Dialogue. (2020a, April 9). COVID-19 Disinformation Briefing no. 2. https://www.isdglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Covid-Briefing-2.pdf.

Institute for Strategic Dialogue. (2020b, May 12). COVID-19 Disinformation Briefing no. 3. https://www.isdglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/20200513-ISDG-Weekly-Briefing-3b.pdf.

Jihadology (2020). Coronavirus and the Salvation Government – Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham. https://jihadology.net/coronavirusa-and-the-salvation-government-hayat-tahir-al-sham/.

Joscelyn, T. [thomasjoscelyn]. (2020, April 1). Al-Qaeda’s senior leadership (AQSL) released a 6-page statement on the coronavirus pandemic. AQSL emphasizes the economic damage to the West, calls Western citizens to Islam & claims Islam is a “hygiene-oriented Religion.” [Tweet]. https://twitter.com/thomasjoscelyn/status/1245311851325423616.

Kilcullen, D. (2013). Out of the Mountains: The Coming Age of the Urban Guerrilla. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Klapsis, A. (2014). Economic Crisis and Political Extremism in Europe: From the 1930s to the Present. European View, 13(2), pp. 189-198.

Lahoud, N. (2016). The ‘Islamic State’ and al-Qaeda. In S. Staffell, & A. K. Awan (Eds.), Jihadism Transformed: Al-Qaeda and Islamic State’s Battle of Ideas (pp. 21-33). London: Hurst & Company.

Lamb, R. D. (2008). Ungoverned Areas and Threats from Safe Havens: Final Report of the Ungoverned Area Project. Washington, DC: Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Policy Planning. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479805.pdf.

Lampe, K. V. (2016). Organized Crime: Analyzing Illegal Activities, Criminal Structures, and Extra-Legal Governance. Thousand Oaks CA: SAGE Publications.

LeFrance, A. (2020, June). The Prophecies of Q: American Conspiracy Theories are Entering a Dangerous New Phase. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/06/qanon-nothing-can-stop-what-is-coming/610567/.

Lemmon, G. T. (2020, May 28). ISIS is Using Coronavirus to Rebuild its Terrorism Network in Iraq and Syria. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/isis-using-coronavirus-rebuild-its-terrorism-network-iraq-syria-ncna1215941.

Lessing, B. & Willis, G. D. (2019). Legitimacy in Criminal Governance: Managing a Drug Empire from Behind Bars. American Political Science Review, 113(2), 584-606.

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055418000928

Lister, C. (2020, May 4). ISIS’s Dramatic Escalation in Syria and Iraq [Middle East Institute (MEI)]. https://www.mei.edu/blog/isiss-dramatic-escalation-syria-and-iraq.

Lister, T. (2018, December 10). Inside Europe’s Most Powerful Mafia: The ‘Ndrangheta. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2018/12/08/europe/ndrangheta-mafia-raids-analysis-intl/index.html.

Macklin, G. (2020, May 15). Coronavirus and the Far Right: Seizing the Moment? [Italian Institute for International Political Studies ISPI]. https://www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/coronavirus-and-far-right-seizing-moment-26153.

Makuch, B. (2020, March 18). Experts Say Neo-Nazi ‘Accelerationists’ Discuss Taking Advantage of Coronavirus Crisis. Vice. https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/pkewgv/experts-say-neo-nazi-accelerationists-discuss-taking-advantage-of-coronavirus-crisis.

Marone, F. (2020, May 15). Terrorism and Counterterrorism in a Time of Pandemic [Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI)]. https://www.ispionline.it/en/pubblicazione/terrorism-and-counterterrorism-time-pandemic-26165.

Melegarou-Hitchens, A. & Crawford, B. (2020, April 21). 5G and the Far Right: How Extremists Capitalise on Coronavirus Conspiracies [Global Network on Extremism and Technology]. https://gnet-research.org/2020/04/21/5g-and-the-far-right-how-extremists-capitalise-on-coronavirus-conspiracies/.

Meleagrou-Hitchens, A., & Kaderbhai, N. (2017). Research perspectives on online radicalisation. International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation.

Miller, C. (2020, May 4). Coronavirus: Far-right Spreads COVID-19 ‘Infodemic’ on Facebook. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-52490430.

Moraes, R., Moreira, D. & Gaier, R. V. (2020, March 25). Gangs Call Curfew as Coronavirus Hits Rio Favelas. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-brazil-favelas-fea/gangs-call-curfews-as-coronavirus-hits-rio-favelas-idUSKBN21B3EV.

Nadeau, B. L. & Di Dontano, V. (2020, April 6). As Northern Italy is Ravaged by Coronavirus, There’s Trouble Brewing Down South. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/04/europe/southern-italy-coronavirus-black-economy-intl/index.html.

Neumann, P. R. (2016). Radicalized: New Jihadists and the Threat to the West. London & New York: I. B. Tauris.

Onraet, E., Van Hiel, A. & Cornelis, I. (2013). Threat and Right-Wing Attitudes: A Cross-National Approach. Political Psychology Journal, 34(5), pp. 791-803.

Ostaeyen, P. V. (2020, May 15). The Islamic State and Coronavirus, Time for a Comeback? [Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI)]. https://www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/islamic-state-and-coronavirus-time-comeback-26166

Pantucci, R. (2020, April 22). After the Coronavirus, Terrorism Won’t be the Same. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/04/22/after-coronavirus-terrorism-isis-hezbollah-5g-wont-be-the-same/.

Penny, E. (2019, August 9). The Deadly Myth of the “Great Replacement”. New Statesman. https://www.newstatesman.com/world/2019/08/deadly-myth-great-replacement.

Perrigo, B. (2020, April 8). White Supremacist Groups are Recruiting with Help from Coronavirus – and a Popular Messaging App. Time. https://time.com/5817665/coronavirus-conspiracy-theories-white-supremacist-groups/.

Phillips, K. (2020, March 16). Far-Right Coronavirus Conspiracies [Canadian Anti-Hate Network]. https://www.antihate.ca/far_right_coronavirus_conspiracies.

Della Porta, D. (2008). Research on social movements and political violence. Qualitative sociology, 31(3), 221-230.

Reeves, P. (2020, March 25). In Brazil, Bolsonaro Doubles Down on ‘Exaggerated’ Coronavirus. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/03/25/821327282/in-brazil-bolsonaro-doubles-down-on-exaggerated-coronavirus.

Schifferes, S. (2020, March 28). Will Coronavirus be the Turning Point for Globalisation? The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/will-coronavirus-be-the-turning-point-for-globalisation-134739.

Schmid, A. P. (2018). Revisiting the relationship between international terrorism and transnational organised crime 22 years later. Research Paper, The International Center for Counter-Terrorism, The Hague, 1-40.

Smelser, N. J. (2007). The Faces of Terrorism: Social and Psychological Dimensions. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

The National (2020, May 3). ISIS Attacks Surge as Region Deals with Coronavirus. https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/isis-attacks-surge-as-region-deals-with-coronavirus-1.1014119.

Tisdall, S. (2020). Power, equality, nationalism: how the pandemic will reshape the world. The Observer, March, 28, 2020.

Tondo, L. (2020, April 10). Mafia Distribute Food to Italy’s Struggling Residents. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/10/mafia-distributes-food-to-italys-struggling-residents#maincontent.

Tony Blair Institute for Global Change (2020, April 9). Snapshot: How Extremist Groups are Responding to COVID-19. https://institute.global/policy/snapshot-how-extremist-groups-are-responding-COVID-19-9-april-2020.

U.S. Department of State (2018, May 31). Amendments to the Terrorist Designations of al-Nusrah Front. https://www.state.gov/amendments-to-the-terrorist-designations-of-al-nusrah-front/.

van Prooijen, J. W., & Douglas, K. M. (2017). Conspiracy Theories as Part of History: The Role of Societal Crisis Situations. Memory Studies, 10(3), pp. 323-333.

Wallner, C. & White, J. (2020, April 30). The Far-Right and Coronavirus: Extreme Voices Amplified by the Global Crisis [The Royal United Services Institute RUSI]. https://rusi.org/commentary/far-right-and-coronavirus-extreme-voices-amplified-global-crisis.

Wilson, J. (2020, April 5). US Far Right Seeks Ways to Exploit Coronavirus and Cause Social Collapse. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/05/us-far-right-seeks-ways-to-exploit-coronavirus-and-cause-social-collapse.

Winter, C. (2017, February). War by Suicide: A Statistical Analysis of the Islamic State’s Martyrdom Industry [International Center for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague]. https://icct.nl/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/ICCT-Winter-War-by-Suicide-Feb2017.pdf.

Zadronzy, B. & Collins, B. (2018, August 14). How Three Conspiracy Theorists Took ‘Q’ and Sparked Qanon. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/how-three-conspiracy-theorists-took-q-sparked-qanon-n900531.

Zelin, A. (2020, May 15), The Jihadi-Backed Salvation Government and COVID-19 in Northwest Syria [Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI)]. https://www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/jihadi-backed-salvation-government-and-COVID-19-northwest-syria-26152.

Zeller, M. C. (2020, May 12). Extremists Strive in Times of Crisis: the COVID-19 Pandemic is no Exception. Open Democracy. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/global-extremes/extremists-strive-times-crisis-COVID-19-pandemic-no-exception/