Social Media Users Cyberhate Reporting Intentions: Does Users’ Perceptions of Police Effectiveness Matter?
محتوى المقال
الملخص
In Kenya, social media platforms are the primary medium for cyberhate, and it predominantly affects university students who have extensive social media usage. Although cyberhate is considered as a criminal offence in Kenya, victims, particularly young people, often do not report victimisation to the police. Despite the well-documented harmful effects of cyberhate, the cause behind its underreporting remains unclear. Studies have established the influential role of attitudes, particularly views of police effectiveness, in shaping the choice to report crimes. However, insufficient focus has been given to examining this relationship, specifically within the context of cyberhate reporting. Moreover, potential variations in perceptions of police effectiveness across different policing contexts also introduce nuances to the relationship. Guided by the Instrumental Performance-Based Model of policing, the study explored the connection between social media users' views of police effectiveness and their intention to report incidents of cyberhate victimisation to the police. A descriptive survey design utilizing a quantitative approach was adopted, targeting undergraduate students at a public university in Kenya. From this population, a sampling frame consisting of 5,121 undergraduates was created by focusing on three faculties, and stratified sampling ensured proportional selection from all strata. The data collection instrument was a questionnaire administered to a randomly selected subset of 378 respondents, of whom 261 returned completed questionnaires. Spearman's correlation results revealed a positive and significant correlation between perceived police effectiveness and cyberhate reporting intentions. The study explored the implications of this finding for the National Police Service and suggested directions for future research.
الكلمات المفتاحية
Cyberhate، police effectiveness، social media users، reporting behaviors، victimisation
التنزيلات
المراجع
T. N. Al-Dwaikat, M. Aldalaykeh, W. Ta’an, and M. Rababa, "The relationship between social networking sites usage and psychological distress among undergraduate students during COVID-19 lockdown," Heliyon, vol. 6, no. 12, e05695, Dec. 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05695.
Z. A. Alhaboby et al., "Cyber-Disability Hate Cases in the UK: The Documentation by the Police and Potential Barriers to Reporting," in H. Jahankhani, A. Jamal, and S. Lawson (Eds.), "Cybersecurity, Privacy and Freedom Protection in the Connected World," Springer International Publishing, 2021, pp. 123-133. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-68534-8_8.
N. Alkiviadou, "Hate speech on social media networks: Towards a regulatory framework?," Information & Communications Technology Law, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 19-35, Jan. 2019. DOI: 10.1080/13600834.2018.1494417.
M. Awais and F. Ali, "Exposure to Online Hate in Four Asian Countries (Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka) and Individual Factors: A Cross-National Survey."
C. Blaya, "Cyberhate: A review and content analysis of intervention strategies," Aggression and Violent Behavior, vol. 45, pp. 163-172, May 2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.avb.2018.05.006.
B. Bradford and J. Jackson, "Trust and Confidence in the Police: A Conceptual Review," SSRN Electronic Journal, Oct. 2010. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.1684508.
A. Breeden, "French Court Convicts 11 People of Harassing Teenager Over Anti-Islam Rant," The New York Times, Jul. 7, 2021.
"Euro 2020: England fan jailed over racist rant," BBC News, Oct. 15, 2021.
D. N. Busolo and S. Ngigi, "Understanding Hate Speech in Kenya," New Media and Mass Communication, vol. 70, 2018.
N. Chakraborti, "Mind the Gap! Making Stronger Connections Between Hate Crime Policy and Scholarship," Criminal Justice Policy Review, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 577-589, Aug. 2016. DOI: 10.1177/0887403415599641.
S. Kemp, “Digital 2022: Kenya,” DataReportal – Global Digital Insights, Feb. 15, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2022-kenya [Accessed: Sep. 15, 2022].
"FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS REPORT," European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2021.
G. Fishman, "PATTERNS OF VICTIMISATION AND NOTIFICATION," The British Journal of Criminology, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 146-157, Apr. 1979. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a046979.
H. Goudriaan, J. P. Lynch, and P. Nieuwbeerta, "Reporting to the police in western nations: A theoretical analysis of the effects of social context," Justice Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 933-969, Dec. 2004. DOI: 10.1080/07418820400096041.
H. Goudriaan, K. Wittebrood, and P. Nieuwbeerta, "Neighbourhood Characteristics and Reporting Crime," The British Journal of Criminology, vol. 46, no. 4, pp. 719-742, Jul. 2006. DOI: 10.1093/bjc/azi096.
A. Graham, T. C. Kulig, and F. T. Cullen, "Willingness to report crime to the police: Traditional crime, cybercrime, and procedural justice," Policing: An International Journal, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 1-16, Jan. 2019. DOI: 10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2019-0115.
L. Grant and D. K. Pryce, "Procedural justice, obligation to obey, and cooperation with police in a sample of Jamaican citizens," Police Practice and Research, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 368-382, Jul. 2020. DOI: 10.1080/15614263.2019.1644178.
C. M. Gutierrez and D. S. Kirk, "Silence Speaks: The Relationship between Immigration and the Underreporting of Crime," Crime & Delinquency, vol. 63, no. 8, pp. 926-950, Aug. 2017. DOI: 10.1177/0011128715599993.
J. Hawdon et al., "Online extremism and online hate: Exposure among adolescents and young adults in four nations," Nordicom Information, vol. 37, no. 3-4, pp. 29-37, 2015.
Independent Policing Oversight Authority, "Endline Survey on Policing Standards and Gaps in Kenya," 2019.
Kenya Law Reports, "Criminal Appeal 1 of 2015—Kenya Law," 2015.
D. Kivoi, "Policing reforms to enhance security in Kenya," Kenya Institute for Public Research and Analysis, 2020.
T. R. Kochel, R. Parks, and S. D. Mastrofski, "Examining Police Effectiveness as a Precursor to Legitimacy and Cooperation with Police," Justice Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 895-925, Oct. 2013. DOI: 10.1080/07418825.2011.633544.
M. Littler and M. Feldman, "Tell MAMA Reporting 2014/2015: Annual Monitoring, Cumulative Extremism, and Policy Implications," Tell MAMA, 2015.
Z. MacDonald, "Revisiting the Dark Figure: A Microeconometric Analysis of the Under-reporting of Property Crime and Its Implications," British Journal of Criminology, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 127-149, Jan. 2001. DOI: 10.1093/bjc/41.1.127.
G. Maweu and O. A. Yudah, "Utilization of Social Media Platforms among Information Science Students at University of Kabianga," OALib, vol. 07, no. 03, pp. 1-11, Mar. 2020. DOI: 10.4236/oalib.1106090.
K. Murphy and J. Barkworth, "Victim Willingness to Report Crime to Police: Does Procedural Justice or Outcome Matter Most?," Victims & Offenders, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 178-204, Apr. 2014. DOI: 10.1080/15564886.2013.872744.
K. Murphy and A. Cherney, "Fostering Cooperation with the Police: How do Ethnic Minorities in Australia Respond to Procedural Justice-Based Policing?," Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, vol. 44, pp. 235-257, Oct. 2011. DOI: 10.1177/0004865811405260.
K. Murphy and A. Cherney, "Understanding Cooperation With Police in a Diverse Society," British Journal of Criminology, vol. 52, pp. 181-201, Jan. 2012. DOI: 10.1093/bjc/azr065.
"DeKUT student records," Office of the Registrar of Academic Affairs, 2022.
J. Orodho, "Techniques of writing research proposals and reports in education and social sciences," 2009.
"Extent of recent unrest: SAPS & KZN briefing; with Minister and Deputy," Parliamentary Monitoring Group, 2021.
J. Smith, "Feminist women’s experiences of online gendered hate," [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.15126/THESIS.00852351, 2020.
J. Sunshine and T. R. Tyler, "The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing," Law & Society Review, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 513-548, Sep. 2003. DOI: 10.1111/1540-5893.3703002.
J. Tankebe, "PUBLIC COOPERATION WITH THE POLICE IN GHANA: DOES PROCEDURAL FAIRNESS MATTER?," Criminology, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 1265-1293, Nov. 2009. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00175.x.
R. Tarling and K. Morris, "Reporting Crime to the Police," British Journal of Criminology, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 474-490, May 2010. DOI: 10.1093/bjc/azq011.
D. Torrente et al., "Comparing crime reporting factors in EU countries," European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 153-174, Apr. 2017. DOI: 10.1007/s10610-016-9310-5.
T. Tyler et al., "Legitimacy and Deterrence Effects in Counter-Terrorism Policing: A Study of Muslim Americans," Law & Society Review, vol. 44, pp. 365-402, Jun. 2010. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5893.2010.00405.x.
S. Weijer, E. Leukfeldt, and W. Bernasco, "Determinants of reporting cybercrime: A comparison between identity theft, consumer fraud, and hacking," European Journal of Criminology, vol. 16, pp. 147737081877361, May 2019. DOI: 10.1177/1477370818773610.
S. Weijer, E. Leukfeldt, and S. Zee, "Reporting cybercrime victimization: Determinants, motives, and previous experiences," Policing: An International Journal, Aug. 2020. DOI: 10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2019-0122.
S. Weijer, E. Leukfeldt, and S. Zee, "Reporting cybercrime victimization: Determinants, motives, and previous experiences," Policing: An International Journal, Aug. 2020. DOI: 10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2019-0122.
M. Xie and E. P. Baumer, "Crime Victims’ Decisions to Call the Police: Past Research and New Directions," Annual Review of Criminology, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 217-240, Aug. 2019. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-criminol-011518-024748.
T. Yamane, "Statistics: An Introductory Analysis," Harper and Row, 2nd Edition, 1967.
E. K. Denny, D. A. Dow, W. Pitts, and E. Wibbels, "Citizen Cooperation with the Police: Evidence from Contemporary Guatemala," Comparative Political Studies, vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 1072–1110, 2023, DOI: 10.1177/00104140221139379.
C. S. Lee, et al., "Procedural justice, perceived injustice, legal cynicism and police performance: understanding the decision to report victimization to the police in Caribbean countries," Polic. Soc., vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 607–625, Jul. 2023, DOI: 0.1080/10439463.2022.2162051
S. J. Linning and J. C. Barnes, "Third-party crime reporting: examining the effects of perceived social cohesion and confidence in police effectiveness," J. Crime Justice, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 39–54, Jan. 2022, DOI: 10.1080/0735648X.2020.1856706.
K. Sarikakis, B. E. Kassa, N. Fenz, S. Goldschmitt, J. Kasser, and L. Nowotarski, "'My haters and I': Personal and political responses to hate speech against female journalists in Austria," Fem. Media Stud., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 67–82, Jan. 2023. DOI: 10.1080/14680777.2021.1979068.
تفاصيل المقال
هذا العمل مرخص بموجب Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.